jueves, 31 de mayo de 2012
Definiciones
1. Sociolingüística
La
sociolingüística es la ciencia que estudia los fenómenos lingüísticos y trata
de relacionarlos con factores de tipo social, tales como:
·
Nivel
socioeconómico
- Edad
- Sexo
- Nivel
de educación formal
- Grupo
étnico
- Aspectos
históricos
- Situación
pragmática
Es
decir, la variación lingüística
es el objetivo central de su estudio, por ejemplo:
¿Por qué ciertas personas
dicen (a) y otros (b)?
¿Quiénes dicen (a) y (b)?
(a) Si tuviera mil dólares, compraría
un yate.
(b) Si tuviera mil dólares, compraba
un yate.
Nos
referimos a la sociolingüística
como el objeto de estudio del lenguaje en relación con la sociedad. Su objetivo
de análisis es la influencia que tienen en una lengua los factores derivados de
las diversas situaciones de uso.
2. Estilística
La estilística es un campo de la lingüística que estudia el uso artístico o estético del lenguaje en las obras literarias y en la lengua común, en sus formas
individuales y colectivas.
La
estilística lingüística concibe el estilo como el conjunto objetivo de
características formales ofrecidas por un texto como resultado de la variación
lingüística o de las intenciones de su autor. La mayor parte de las
aplicaciones informáticas de verificación de estilo se basan en la adscripción
del texto analizado a un género o variedad lingüístico-estilístico determinado
y en la comparación de los rasgos lingüísticos característicos de este género
con los rasgos detectados en el texto. Esto se hace así porque un mismo rasgo lingüístico
puede considerarse propio o impropio del estilo de un texto, aceptable o
inaceptable, según la variedad lingüístico-estilística a la que pertenezca el
texto que lo contiene.
3. Neurolingusitica
Nos referimos a neurolingüística como a la ciencia que estudia los mecanismos del cerebro humano facilitando el conocimiento y la comprensión del lenguaje, ya
sea hablado, escrito o con signos establecidos a partir de su experiencia o de
su propia programación.
La neurolingüística busca
integrar a la persona en un todo y permite influir en ella, de manera sutil,
manteniendo la visión de donde se encuentra la negociación con el otro
individuo y hacia donde se pretende llegar.
Bibliografía
Grammatical Cases of Charles Fillmore & Structural Semantics according to William Chafe´s perspective
Grammatical Cases of Charles Fillmore
Charles J. Fillmore (born 1929) is an American linguist, and an Emeritus Professor of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. He was one of the first linguists to introduce a representation of linguistic knowledge that blurred this strong distinction between syntactic and semantic knowledge of a language.
He introduced what was termed case structure grammar and this representation subsequently had considerable influence on psychologists as well as computational linguists.
Grammar Case is a system of linguistic analysis, focusing on the link between the valence, or number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and the grammatical context it requires.
The system was created by the American linguist Charles J. Fillmore in (1968), in the context of Transformational Grammar. This theory analyzes the surface syntactic structure of sentences by studying the combination of deep cases (i.e. semantic roles) Agent, Object, Benefactor, Location or Instrument which are required by a specific verb.
According to Fillmore, each verb selects a certain number of deep cases which form its case frame. Thus, a case frame describes important aspects of semantic valency, of verbs, adjectives and nouns.
Case frames are subject to certain constraints, such as that a deep case can occur only once per sentence. Some of the cases are obligatory and others are optional.
Obligatory cases may not be deleted, at the risk of producing ungrammatical sentences. The case structure representation served to inspire the development of what was termed a frame-based representation in AI research.
Within a frame-base architecture it is quite natural to have these type of inferences triggered by the representation of the sentence. (For those familiar with certain types of Object Oriented programming language; the frame-based architecture in AI was a somewhat more complicated and elaborated programming environment.)
One of the consistent findings in human sentence understanding is that we seem to draw these inferences automatically. And, we rarely remember whether or not such information was explicitly stated in the sentence. This observation is consistent with some of the features of a frame-based representation as suggested by case structure grammar Another aspect of the case grammar representation is that it can be effectively used to parse incomplete or noisy sentences.
For example, while John gave book is not grammatical; it is still possible to create an appropriate case grammar parse of this string of words. However, case grammar is not a particularly good representation for use in parsing sentences that involve complex syntactic constructions. The web page on representing textual information will give you some appreciation of this difficulty.
Charles J. Fillmore (born 1929) is an American linguist, and an Emeritus Professor of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. He was one of the first linguists to introduce a representation of linguistic knowledge that blurred this strong distinction between syntactic and semantic knowledge of a language.
He introduced what was termed case structure grammar and this representation subsequently had considerable influence on psychologists as well as computational linguists.
Grammar Case is a system of linguistic analysis, focusing on the link between the valence, or number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and the grammatical context it requires.
The system was created by the American linguist Charles J. Fillmore in (1968), in the context of Transformational Grammar. This theory analyzes the surface syntactic structure of sentences by studying the combination of deep cases (i.e. semantic roles) Agent, Object, Benefactor, Location or Instrument which are required by a specific verb.
According to Fillmore, each verb selects a certain number of deep cases which form its case frame. Thus, a case frame describes important aspects of semantic valency, of verbs, adjectives and nouns.
Case frames are subject to certain constraints, such as that a deep case can occur only once per sentence. Some of the cases are obligatory and others are optional.
Obligatory cases may not be deleted, at the risk of producing ungrammatical sentences. The case structure representation served to inspire the development of what was termed a frame-based representation in AI research.
Within a frame-base architecture it is quite natural to have these type of inferences triggered by the representation of the sentence. (For those familiar with certain types of Object Oriented programming language; the frame-based architecture in AI was a somewhat more complicated and elaborated programming environment.)
One of the consistent findings in human sentence understanding is that we seem to draw these inferences automatically. And, we rarely remember whether or not such information was explicitly stated in the sentence. This observation is consistent with some of the features of a frame-based representation as suggested by case structure grammar Another aspect of the case grammar representation is that it can be effectively used to parse incomplete or noisy sentences.
For example, while John gave book is not grammatical; it is still possible to create an appropriate case grammar parse of this string of words. However, case grammar is not a particularly good representation for use in parsing sentences that involve complex syntactic constructions. The web page on representing textual information will give you some appreciation of this difficulty.
Structural
Semantics according to William Chafe´s perspective
Structural
Semantics is the study of relationships between the meanings of terms within a
sentence, and how meaning can be composed from smaller elements. However,
some critical theorists suggest
that meaning is only divided into smaller structural units via its regulation
in concrete social interactions; outside of these interactions language may
become meaningless.
In the
approaches labelled "Structural semantics" by cognitive linguists, word meanings,
or lexical meanings can
be broken down into atomic semantic
features, which are in a way the distinctive properties of the
meaning of a word.
In accordance
with the objectivist bias of structural semantics, semantic features are
believed to refer to actual properties, objects or relations in the exterior
world.
Syntactic
description has usually taken the sentence to be its basic unit of
organization, although probably no one would deny that systematic constraints
exist across sentence boundaries as well.
From time to
time some attention has been given to “discourse” structure, but the structure
of the sentences has seemed to exhibit a kind of closure which allows it to be
investigated in relative, if not complete, independence.
Language seen
from a semantic perspective, intersentential constraints play a role that is
probably more important than under other views of language, for a number of the
limitations which cross sentence boundaries are clearly semantic in nature.
The term
sentence provides a convenient way of referring to a verb and its accompanying
nouns, the status of sentence as an independent structural entity is doubtful.
There seems no need for some independent symbol as the starting point for
generation of sentences, the verb is all the starting point needed.
A sentence is
either a verb alone, a verb accompanied by one or more nouns, or a
configuration of this kind to which one ore more coordinate or subordinate
verbs have been added.
Bibliography
Leonard Bloomfield
Leonard Bloomfield
Who is Leonard Bloomfield?
Leonard Bloomfield was born on April 1, 1887, in Chicago, He graduated from Harvard College and He founded American structuralism. He is especially known for his book Language (1933), describing the state of the art of linguistics at its time. Bloomfield was the main founder of the Linguistic Society of America.
Which proposes the American structuralism?
The term structuralism is used in many contexts in different disciplines in the 20th century. Structuralism proposes the idea that many phenomena do not occur in isolation, but instead occur in relation to each other, and that all related phenomena are part of a whole with a definite, but not necessarily defined, structure.
The important points of Leonard Bloomfield are:
• Bloomfield was the main founder of the Linguistic Society of America.
• Bloomfield's thought was mainly characterized by its behavioristic principles for the study of meaning, its insistence on formal procedures for the analysis of language data, as well as a general concern to provide linguistics with rigorous scientific methodology.
• Leonard Bloomfield is not only considered one of the best Linguists of his time, he is considered one of the best of all time.
American Structuralism
American structuralism based on structural linguistics developed by Saussure. Bloomfield is known for applying the principles of behaviorist psychology to linguistics, defining "the meaning of a linguistic form as the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response it calls forth in the hearer." (Oller, 1979).
Sapir's work has always held an attraction for the more anthropologically inclined American linguists. But it was Bloomfield who prepared the way for the later phase of what is now thought of as the most distinctive manifestation of American "structuralism." When he published his first book in 1914, Bloomfield was strongly influenced by Wundt's psychology of language.
In 1933, however, he published a drastically revised and expanded version with the new title Language; this book dominated the field for the next 30 years. In it Bloomfield explicitly adopted a behavioristic approach to the study of language, eschewing in the name of scientific objectivity all reference to mental or conceptual categories. Of particular consequence was his adoption of the behavioristic theory of semantics according to which meaning is simply the relationship between a stimulus and a verbal response. Because science was still a long way from being able to give a comprehensive account of most stimuli, no significant or interesting results could be expected from the study of meaning for some considerable time, and it was preferable, as far as possible, to avoid basing the grammatical analysis of a language on semantic considerations. Bloomfield's followers pushed even further the attempt to develop methods of linguistic analysis that were not based on meaning. One of the most characteristic features of "post-Bloomfieldian" American structuralism, then, was its almost complete neglect of semantics.
Bibliography
http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/st/Structuralism
http://www.soc.hyogo-u.ac.jp/tani/amstructuralsim.htm
http://dona-te.blogspot.mx/2007/11/structuralism-bloomfield.html http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Found/bloomfieldbio.
html http://www.bookrags.com/biography/leonard-bloomfield/
Glossary
Mere:
is a syncategorematic expression and it is used to emphasize that something is
not large or important and is not quantifiable. Its use informs us about
attitudes, not facts.
Scientist:
someone who studies science or works in science; this expression condemns the
confusion of technical jargon and empirical trappings with whatever 'real'
science is.
Meaning:
The meaning of words, sings or actions is that they represent or show. The word
meaning locates a task without telling us how to go about its study.
Linguistics:
Is the scientific study of language, also called linguistic science.
Linguistics covers different approaches and different areas of investigation
such as sounds systems, sentence structure
Legitimate
data: Real information.
Method:
a particular way of doing something, often one that involves a system or plan.
Evidence:
something that makes you believe that something its true or exists/information
and answer questions in a court of law.
Feasible
goals: an aim or desired result possible to do
easily or conveniently.
Mentalism:
is a performing art in which its
practitioners, known as mentalists,
appear to demonstrate highly developed mental or intuitive abilities/it
is a dualism and recognizes two kinds: mental and
material of data, experience,, study
goals and methods of study.
Speech: The faculty or act of speaking.
Behaviorism:
is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a
systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental
states.
Dualistic:
the view that the world consists of
or is explicable as two fundamental entities, such as mind and matter.
Monistic: The view in metaphysics that reality is
a unified whole and that all existing things can be ascribed to or described by
a single concept or system./ The doctrine that mind and matter are formed from,
or reducible to, the same ultimate substance or principle of being.
Ethnography:
The branch of anthropology that
deals with the scientific description of specific human cultures.
Anthropology:
the study of the human race, its culture and society and its physical
development.
Postulates:
to ask, demand, or claim.
/ Something taken as self-evident
or assumed without proof as a basis for reasoning.
Postulation
method: is assumptions or axioms is fully adequate
in mathematics, it is a method of clarifying and simplifying the whole process
of argumentation.
Form:
it expresses its meaning.
Utterance:
The power of speaking; speech.
Morpheme: A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a
word, such as man, or a word element, such as -ed in walked, that cannot be divided into smaller
meaningful parts.
Word
phrase: the smallest bit of language that has its
own meaning
Assumption:
A phrase may contain a bound form which is not part of a word, such a bound
form is a phrase-formative.
Phonemes:
it is the branch of science that deals with sound-production. Any of the
abstract units of the phonetic system of a language that correspond to a set of
similar speech sounds which are perceived to be a single distinctive sound in
the language
Parts
of speech:
Classifications of words according to their relations to each otherand to the things they represent. Different parts of speech nameactions, name the performers of actions, describe the performersor actions, and so on.
The common parts of speech areadjectives, adverbs, articles, conjunctions, interjections, nouns,
prepositions, pronouns and verbs.
Alternation: variation in the form of a linguistic unit as itoccurs in different environments or under differentconditions, as between the -ed and -en forms of the pastparticiple in danced and spoken or between the (t) and (d)pronunciations of the past tense suffix -ed in hopped and
rubbed.
Historical
linguistics: is the branch of linguistics that
focuses on the interconnections between different languages in the world and/or
their historical development.
The
literary standard: is accessible through
general or personal education effort, transcends geographic and social
barriers, and is used on occasions described as formal.
Colloquial
standard: is observed in situations lacking formal
behaviors among observably privileged classes within a larger speech meaning.
Provincial
standard: is observed among those remote
geographically from the formative environments of cultural centers.
Sub-standard:
speech behavior is found among those who must interact daily as peers with each
other, but only occasionally, and as subordinates, to the privileged; their
goals, satisfactions, reinforcement, and opportunities differ markedly from
those of standard speakers, although they may occupy identical territory.
Local
dialect: is that of an interacting group with which
others have so little contact that dialect speakers are incomprehensible
without considerable attention. The occasions of difference are time, plus geographic
and/or educational isolation.
Presuppositions:
to suppose or assume beforehand; take for granted in advance.
Palatalization:
During the production of a consonant, the tongue and lips take up, as far as
compatible with the main features of the phoneme, the position of a front
vowel, etc.
Velarization:
in which the tongue is retracted as for a back vowel.
Labialized:
pronounced with secondary labial articulation.
Contrasts:
to differ in a way that can serve to distinguish
meanings for example :
The sounds ( p ) and ( b ) contrast in the words “pin”and “bin.”
Reference:
is a static relation, dynamic process or action linking (c) to (a), mediated by
(b).
Sense:
is a state, process, or action within an inside the speakers, by which a speech
is related to an outside the speaker.
Expression:
If meaning is sense: it is a static relation, process, or action relating a
speech and inside the speaker. If meaning is sense-and-reference: it is a
static relation, process, or action linking an aspect of outside the speaker
mediated by inside the speaker.
Referent:
is a static relation, dynamic process or action, is a sense in behaviorist a
disposition to respond, the thing is called referent a bit of object.
Denotation:
is a reference and/or referent / is a direct specific meaning as distinct from
an implied or associated idea.
Connotations:
are subjective or specialized in feelings or ideas that are suggested by a
particular word although it need not be a part of the word's meaning, or
something suggested by an object or situation.
Situation:
it includes every object and happening in there, hence an aspect of outside the
speaker which speaker and hearer equally constitute, distinct only by their
individual conditioning by the rest of outside the speaker in the past.
Demonstration:The act or circumstance of proving or being proved
conclusively, as by reasoning or a show of evidence:
a belief in capable of demonstration.
Empiricism:
The posteriori or inductive approach is claimed to discover structure in data.
Modulation: the act of modulating or the condition of being modulated.
Syntax: the
grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence.
Sandhi:
is the label for features of modulation and phonetic modification important to
many syntactic structures.
Endocentric:
Having the same syntacticfunction in the sentence as one of its immediate constituents
Exocentric:
Two or more parts of a phrase that are different parts of speech and, when
combined, form another part of speech which is different from all of the parts.
Order:
an authoritative direction or instruction; command; mandate.
Binarisim
revisited: Ambiguous or inadequate elements in
combination compound ambiguity or inadequacy.
Structure:
the aggregate of elements of an entity in their relationships to each other.
Pattern:
an artistic, musical, literary, or mechanical design or form.
Design:
o plan and fashion artistically or skillfully.
A
priori: Deduction /Expression often
used to disparage other’s work and invite approbation of one´s own,
usually dad.
A
posteriori: Induction /Expression often
used to disparage other’s work and invite approbation of one´s own,
usually good.
Rationalism:
the a priori or deductive approach has been said to impose structure upon
data.
Structural
description: Description based in the structure of
something.
Valid:
logically correct.
Correct: Truth
is not popularly distinguished from validity, but validity can be viewed as
subsuming true and correct.
Form-classes:
a group of words distinguished by common inflections, such as the weak verbs of
English.
Lexicon:
the vocabulary of a language, an individual speaker or group of speakers, or a
subject.
Cultural
borrowing: is a loanword that was adopted to express a concept that is new to the recipient language speakers' culture/ is taking ideas,
customs, and social behaviors from another culture or civilization.
Intimate
borrowing: the
borrowing of linguistic forms by one language or dialect from another when both
occupy a single geographical or cultural community.
Dialect borrowing: its very nature this kind of borrowing is difficult to identify. It usually shows up, however, in detailed comparative work as inconsistent sound correspondences and/or as dialect chaining, Dialect borrowing therefore poses problems for the traditional family tree model of language diversification.
Dialect borrowing: its very nature this kind of borrowing is difficult to identify. It usually shows up, however, in detailed comparative work as inconsistent sound correspondences and/or as dialect chaining, Dialect borrowing therefore poses problems for the traditional family tree model of language diversification.
Mechanical: Mechanical forces are physical forces that cause objects or matter to
move.
Bibliography
·
Anthology: Linguistic theory
II
·
Cambridge
Learner's Dictionary, third edition,2008
Investigation: Linguistic change in Spanish language by the impact of social networks.
Linguistic change in Spanish
language by the impact of social networks.
Nowadays the impact of the social networks and the new technologies
affect the language, especially in young's between 13 to 16 years old.
Young people write without thinking of grammar rules, and they invent
abbreviated words and new phrases to communicate among themselves.
These are real examples of a young girl of 14 year old:
word
|
Meaning
|
Aylobiu
|
I love you
|
Moxa♥
|
Hermosa
|
Sipi- Nop
|
Sí-No
|
Tqdmc
|
Te quiero demasiado
|
x
|
Por
|
The objective of this work is to recognize the changes on the new
generations in the Spanish language; other objective is to understand new
words, phrases and contractions of the words between the young people but
mostly to know if it is true that the impact of social networking is affecting
the grammar.
Social networks play an important role in determining
the dynamics and outcome of language change[1]
Facebook
has opened the door to shorthand typing, abbreviations, emoticons and text
lingo. Those messages include many grammar and spelling errors posted
across profiles for everyone to see.
It's
a daily ritual for many of us. You log onto Facebook, change your
status, comment on others' and, then, you see them! Those mistakes!
A missing apostrophe here,
a misspelled word there and the misuse of homophones everywhere! [2]
Hypotheses
·
I think these changes are just deformations of
language that have been subject to time.
I believe that young
people use such words or phrases to enter
the social circle that develops in these social networks.
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